kamikaze bushido meizi okanayamaki tokugawa

The Kamikaze (神風^?, [kamikaꜜze] ( listen); "divine wind" or "spirit wind"), officially Tokubetsu Kōgekitai (特別攻撃隊 "Special Attack Unit"^?), abbreviated as Tokkō Tai (特攻隊^?), and used as a verb as Tokkō (特攻 "special attack"^?), were suicide attacks by military aviators from the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific campaign of World War II, designed to destroy warships more effectively than was possible with conventional attacks. During World War II, about 3,860 kamikaze pilots died, and about 19% of kamikaze attacks managed to hit a ship.^[1]
The tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and perceived shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese military culture. It was one of the primary traditions in the samurai life and the Bushido code: loyalty and honour until death, as the Japanese perceived it.^{[3][4][5][6][7]}

These attacks, which began in October 1944, followed several critical military defeats for the Japanese. They had long since lost aerial dominance due to outdated aircraft and the loss of experienced pilots. On a macroeconomic scale, Japan suffered from a diminishing capacity for war, and a rapidly declining industrial capacity relative to the Allies. Despite these problems, the Japanese government expressed its reluctance to surrender. In combination, these factors led to the use of kamikaze tactics as Allied forces advanced towards the Japanese home islands.

Did makeup bring down Japan’s centuries-old shogunate system? A recent study of samurai families' remains suggests that lead poisoning from cosmetics may have contributed to its demise.

During Japan’s Edo period, a series of military dictators called shoguns controlled the country, served by feudal lords known as daimyo and the samurai warriors who protected them. In 1868, after more than 260 years in existence, this highly stratified system collapsed and imperial rule was restored. Historians point to many reasons for the shogunate’s demise, including foreign intrusions, rebellion against the feudal system and sweeping global trends that forced Japan to abandon its policy of isolation. Writing in a recent issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science, scientists at the University of Occupational and Environmental Health in Kitakyushu have proposed a surprising addition to this list of factors: makeup.

Led by the anatomist Tamiji Nakashima, the researchers unearthed the remains of 70 people from a samurai burial place in the ancient city of Kokura. After testing the concentration of lead in their bones, they determined that the women in the group had higher lead levels than the men; the children’s levels, meanwhile, were up to 50 times higher than their parents’. The most elevated levels showed up in those under age 3—a median of 1,241 micrograms of lead per gram of dry bone, or more than 120 times the minimum amount now believed to cause neurological disorders, behavioral problems and severe intellectual impairment.

What caused the samurai kids’ apparent lead poisoning and the discrepancy between the men’s and women’s respective levels? Nakashima and his team point to the lead-heavy cosmetics samurai women often used during the Edo period. As members of an elite group, samurai wives wanted to look stylish, so they took fashion cues from the celebrities of their day: famous geishas, courtesans and Kabuki actresses. Many of these high-profile women coated their faces in a lead-based white powder that served as a canvas for brightly colored accents. While the precise origin of this practice is unknown, it is likely that a pale complexion signified prestige in feudal Japan: Poor people tended to work outdoors and could not shield their faces from the sun.

Young children’s exposure may have occurred while they breastfed, and those who did not die from the metal’s effects probably suffered from the many mental and physical symptoms it can produce, Nakashima said. The historical record hints that even the shoguns were not impervious: Several rulers during the Edo period were afflicted with mysterious disorders that are consistent with lead toxicity. The lower classes, meanwhile, were prohibited from using cosmetics and could not have afforded them anyway; their inferior status granted them immunity from a lethal luxury that may have weakened their leaders and created enough political instability to bring down the shogunate system.

This is not the first time people have jeopardized their health in the name of beauty. Throughout history, men and women from various cultures have adorned themselves with products containing lead and other harmful substances. The ancient Egyptians, for instance, used lead, arsenic and other toxic ingredients in their elaborate eye makeup. In Elizabethan times, women used mercury—which can accumulate in the body and affect the nervous system—to treat blemishes and clean their faces. Even today, the debate continues about whether cosmetics containing traces of lead should be universally banned.

This is also not the first time lead has been blamed for the decline of a powerful ruling class. The ancient Romans—and particularly members of the aristocracy–used the metal for everything from fabricating pipes and lining baths to heating wine and flavoring food. While the contention that lead toppled Rome has stirred up a great deal of controversy among historians, most agree that many Romans suffered from its toxic effects.

tsunami

Until the mid 19th century, scientists assumed that the continents were fixed in place and subjected to only vertical movements such as those motions which create mountain ranges. By the mid 19th century, when the coastlines of the Atlantic Ocean had been accurately mapped, geologists noticed that the East coasts of North and South America could be closely fitted against the West coast of Europe and Africa. Some scientists suggested that all of the present continents once formed a single, very large land mass which had split into many pieces eons ago. Two parts pulled apart to create the Atlantic Ocean. Like most scientists who propose radical new ideas, these geologists were initially ridiculed. However Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, did a careful analysis of the continental fit early in the 20th century. He revived the concept that the continents once formed a single land mass, which he  called Pangaea. He noted "many striking similarities between the fossil plants and reptiles on the opposite coasts" of the Atlantic ocean. ₁ He showed that the same formation of three layers of rock occurs in many areas of the world: a glacial deposit called tillite at the bottom, a layer composed of sandstone, shale and coal; and a basalt lava flow on top. He speculated that the layers were formed in a part of Pangaea, which later broke up and drifted apart to form some of the continents we see today. ₂ Few geologists accepted this theory until two discoveries were made in the 1950s:

The study of paleomagnetism -- magnetism in rocks: The magnetic field of molten rock forms when it has cooled down sufficiently to pass through its Curie temperature. It preserves the direction of the earth's magnetic field as it existed at that time. By drilling a hole through undisturbed rock, the top layer will be found to be magnetized in the current direction of the earth's magnetic field. But layers underneath are found to be magnetized in alternating directions. This showed that the earth's magnetic field reverses directions every few hundred thousand years.

The discovery of a continuous ridge of undersea mountains in the middle of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans: Molten material from deep in the earth "heaps up to form the ridge, and it also moves out sideways from the ridge like a pair of giant conveyor belts." As it cools, it is magnetized in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field. Every few hundred thousand years, the Earth's field is reversed. This can be detected in the form of "alternating regions of normal and reversed magnetic directions symmetrically disposed on both sides of the ridge."  1 The sea floor is spreading as new material continually wells up from within the earth. "...if one were to push the continents bordering the Atlantic together (reversing the drift that is going on at present), the continents would meet at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and close up on the ocean that now separates them."  1

The current theory, accepted by most geologists, is that the earth has an outer shell made up of six to eight large tectonic plates and many smaller ones. "Tectonic" comes from the Greek world "tekton" which means "builder." These relatively rigid masses of rock slide over the mantle. The mantle is composed of hot, soft rocks underneath the plates. Some geologists suggest that the mantle is in motion and carries the plates along with it.

About the South Asian tsunami:

Near Sumatra Island in Indonesia, there is a complex structure of tectonic plates involving the Burma plate, with the India and Australia plate to the west and the Sunda and Eurasian plates to the east. These plates are continually grinding against each other. They move very slowly -- only at about the rate, on average, that a human fingernail grows. Serious problems happen at subduction zones where one plate dives underneath the edge of an adjoining plate. Force builds up -- sometimes over hundreds of years -- until a rupture occurs and generates a violent earthquake. On 2004-DEC-26 -- the day after Christmas -- at 0758 local time (0058 GMT), an unusually powerful rupture occurred which generated a magnitude 9.15 earthquake  "about [100 miles] 160 kilometers...off the coast of Indonesia's Sumatra Island at a depth of about [6.2 miles] 10 kilometers...." ₃ It was the strongest earthquake anywhere on earth since the magnitude 9.2 quake which hit Prince William Sound, Alaska, in 1964. "The strongest quake on record hit Chile in 1960 and measured 9.5 on the Richter scale." ₄ The energy in earthquakes increases by a factor of ten for each one point increase in the open-ended Richter scale. Thus a magnitude 9 earthquake contains a thousand times the energy of a magnitude 6 earthquake.

The earthquake was detected by sensors at earthquake observatories round the world. Quakes approaching 9 on the Richter scale are capable of generating a tsunami. This earthquake sent a sea surge in the Indian Ocean which probably reached speeds of 270 mph (450 km/hr) in open water. After about three hours, it approached Sri Lanka. It slowed down to perhaps 27 mph (45 km/hr) as it neared land, where it was squeezed upwards to produce a wave capable of massive destruction. ₃

The first sign from land of a tsunami is that water is sucked away from the beach. In some areas, this tsunami exposed the ocean bottom near the shore, stranding fish. Many villagers rushed to collect the fish, were hit by the sea surge, and killed.

In early 2005-FEB, scientists at NASA said that the earthquake that caused the tsunami disrupted the Earth's rotation and shaved 2.68 microseconds from the length of each day. The North Pole shifted by about one inch. The planet is now slightly less oblate -- that is, not quite as flattened at the poles. ₈

Sponsored link:

Reducing the death toll from the next tsunami:

It is quite impossible to rearrange tectonic plates, prevent earthquakes, or prevent tsunamis. But there are ways to minimize some of the devastation and loss of life:

	Where possible, establishing a green belt of trees at the shore to adsorb some of the force of the sea surge.
	Educating people who live near the ocean to be aware that the first sign of an oncoming tsunami may be a retraction of the water from the shore. If they see that happening again, they need to move inland as fast as possible.
	Developing evacuation programs to evacuate to higher floors of strongly constructed buildings and/or a sufficient distance from the shore line.
	Develop a warning system such as the one that currently exists in the countries bordering the Pacific Ocean. Such a system is being implemented worldwide.

Benefits of the motion of the tectonic plates:

It is difficult to talk about the benefits of tectonic plates with the realization that their motion created a tsunami which recently snuffed out the lives of about 155,000 people. However, the same shifting of tectonic plates that causes earthquakes and generated the South Asia tsunami is also partly responsible for life on earth.

Dr. Donald J. DePaolo, a geochemist at the University of California, Berkeley, said:

"It's hard to find something uplifting about 150,000 lives being lost. But the type of geological process that caused the earthquake and the tsunami is an essential characteristic of the earth. As far as we know, it doesn't occur on any other planetary body and has something very directly to do with the fact that the earth is a habitable planet." ₅

If tectonic plates existed elsewhere in the solar system's approximately 70 planets and moons, they would have produced mountain ranges of the type seen on Earth. None have been seen.

eq etc

The earthquake and resulting tsunami in the Indian Ocean on December 26th, 2004 had a devastating effect on India. According to the Indian government, almost 11,000 people died in the tsunami and over 5,000 are missing and feared dead (Ministry of Home Affairs). It is estimated that 380,000 Indians have been displaced by the disaster and reconstruction is expected to cost more than 1.2 billion dollars (World Bank). The areas hardest hit by the tsunami were the southeastern coast and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.




 

Tsunami Map

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Map

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a territory of India located in the Indian Ocean along the southeastern portion of the Bay of Bengal, near the epicenter of the original 9.0 earthquake. Both island groups were not only devastated by the tsunami, but also by the earthquake and several aftershocks that occurred near the islands in the following days. The death toll from the tsunami in the islands is believed be around 2,000, accounting for a large percentage of India’s total casualties. Most of the still 5,000 Indians still missing and presumed dead were from the islands, so the actual death toll may be much higher (Wikipedia).
The Nicobar Islands were particularly affected by the tsunami. According to the Territory Police Chief S.B. Doel, one in five people living on the islands had been injured or killed by the tsunami (India Times). The islands of Great Nicobar and Car Nicobar experienced widespread devastation because of their general flatness. Some smaller islands in the Nicobars have completely vanished and others have changed shape, such as Trinket, which split into two parts after the tsunami hit. Saltwater intrusion has also occurred on many islands, destroying farmland and sources of freshwater. Chowra Island (population 1,500) lost two- thirds of its people in the aftermath of the tsunami. On Car Nicobar, one hundred members of the Indian Air Force and their families perished when the waves submerged the local air base (Yahoo).




Destruction on Car Nicobar after the tsunami

Communication lines with the Indian government were completely knocked out after the tsunami and many roads and runways were completely washed out, limiting the amount of relief aid that could reach the islands. The Indian government also refused international support on Car Nicobar because of the presence of a military base on the island, which largely delayed the distribution of food, water, and medical supplies to local people. Hundreds of people on the islands were forced to live off of coconuts, bananas, and food packets dropped from planes for days until relief agencies and military forces could reach the islands. Currently, thousands of settlers on the islands have moved back to the Indian mainland because of the intolerable conditions and fear of another tsunami (BBC 1).

Most of the deaths in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands were recent settlers or immigrants. However, the 28,000 indigenous people of the islands mostly escaped the disaster. Many tribes that live on the islands such as the Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese, and Shompen are regarded as some of the most primitive in the world and have little contact with the outside world. Oral traditions have been passed from generation to generation, telling tribes to move into the hills or elevated areas if the earth shakes. The story of the indigenous tribes’ survival of the tsunami may lead to other problems however. The arrival of international reporters and aid workers may bring new diseases to the tribes, who do not have the medication or immunity to survive a widespread epidemic. The number of casualties among some tribes is still largely unknown because they live in relatively remote regions and tend to avoid outside contact. For example, the Indian military reports that the Sentinelese shot arrows at a relief helicopter trying to land near one of their villages and the Shompen have fled into the forest when planes and helicopters fly overhead (BBC 2).

The Indian Mainland

Areas most affected by tsunami
The tsunami hit the Indian mainland roughly two hours after the earthquake. The waves completely leveled villages and devastated cities along the southeastern coast, resulting in over 9,000 deaths. The vast majority of the casualties came from the state of Tamil Nadu (8,000), although Kerala also lost an estimated 200 people. Nagapattinam district was the worst hit region of Tamil Nadu, accounting for over half of the deaths (5,500) from the tsunami on the Indian mainland (Wikipedia).
Perhaps the people most affected by the tsunami were the local fishermen (See Fishing). Eighty percent of the people who were affected by the tsunami came from fishing communities and over 50,000 fishing vessels were damaged by the waves (World Bank). Several fishing villages in Tamil Nadu were completely destroyed, nearly wiping out the whole population in some areas. Thousands of fisherman lost their boats and other fishing equipment in the disaster. In Nagapattinam, only three of the 15,000 vessels escaped damage. Indian officials estimate that it will cost 125 million dollars to repair the ships and replace fishing equipment (BBC 3).


Damaged fishing boats
The fishermen in Tamil Nadu further experienced problems when the price of fish in markets dropped substantially in the days and weeks after the tsunami. People were afraid of the eating the fish because they thought the fish may have fed off dead bodies in the water and became contaminated with disease. Scientists tried to downplay claims of disease by telling Indians that the tsunami would have stirred up nutrients on the ocean floor, creating new sources of food for sealife and decreasing their desire to feed off of bodies. Although most of these fears were unrealistic, the demand for fish in the region declined by 30 percent after the tsunami, which only hurt the relief effort futher in the region (CNN).
Most of the fishermen and people living in the fishing villages are relatively poor and come from low castes in Indian society. When the fishing industry haulted in the area after the tsunami, the people not only lost their primary source of income but also a substantial portion of their diet. Those fishermen who were able to take their boats out found that prime fishing spots were unproductive due to changes in the ocean floor. Sand brought in from the tsunami also covered many coastal coral reefs and limited the number of fish caught in those areas. Thankfully, the Indian Government was able to move into the region fairly quickly with relief supplies to prevent widespread disease and famine.
The primary issue now in the fishing villages is how to repair the fishing boats and equipment and rebuild the economy. Many villagers are wary of the rebuilding effort because they feel that politicians are trying to buy their votes rather than actually caring about their personal well-being. The government has not stated a clear policy for rebuilding the villages and no organization exists to truly represent fishing communities, making it difficult for the government to know exactly what the people need. A massive rebuilding effort has begun in coastal villages, but most are built on a large project oriented basis, and rarely consider the individual needs of people or communities (The Hindu). People from the fishing villages are now concerned that they will once again be ignored by politicians and government officials after the clean-up process and elections have concluded.
One of the more interesting outcomes of the tsunami occurred near Mahabalipuram, India . For generations, local people had told stories about an ancient port city known as Seven Pagodas along the east coast of India, although little archaeological evidence could be found. The sand along the coast was thought to cover up much of the ancient city, but after the tsunami hit, many treasures of the fabled city were became visible for the first time in 1,500 years. Local people discovered remnants of large temples and huge statues such as elephants, lions, and flying horses in the days following the disaster. The water level along the coast receded dramatically before the tsunami, revealing to many fishermen that the city extends well into the ocean. The new discovery has brought a number of archaeologists and tourists to the area to observe and study the ancient city, helping the local economy and rebuilding effort (CBS News).


Ancient statues uncovered by the tsunami 

‘Sufism’ is a term used to refer to mystical religious ideas in Islam. It had evolved into a well developed movement by the 11th century. Sufis, stress on the importance of traversing the path of the Sufi pir enabling one to establish a direct communion with the divine. Sufism or mysticism emerged in the 8th century and among the early known Sufis were Rabia al-Adawiya, Al-Junaid and Bayazid Bastami. Fundamental to sufism is God, Man and the relation between them that is Love. They believe that from man emerged the theories of ruh (soul), qurbat (divine proximity) and hulul (infusion of the divine spirit) and that from relation between God and Man ideas such as Ishq (divine love) and Fana (self annihilation) come into being. The Sufis were regarded as people who kept their heart pure; they sought to communicate with God though their ascetic practices and doctrine of divine love and union with God. The murid (disciple) passes through maqamat (various stages) in this process of experiencing communication with the divine. The khanqah (the hospice) was the center of activities of the various sufis orders. The khanqah was led by shaikh, pir or murshid (teacher) who lived with his murids (disciples). In time the Khanqahs emerged as important centres of learning and preaching. By the twelfth century the sufis were organized in silsilahs (orders). The word silsila meant chain and it represented signifying an unbreakable chain between the pir and the murid. With the death of the pir his tomb or shrine the dargah became a centre for his disciples and followers. In the 10th century Sufism spread across important regions of the Islamic empire. Iran, Khurasan, Transoxiana, Egypt, Syria and Baghdad were important Sufi centers. Al-Ghazali, (1059–1111 A.D.) is among the most venerated of Sufis. He reconciled Islamic mysticism with Islamic orthodoxy, providing Sufi mysticism a secure place in Islam. He stressed on the need for the disciple to follow the guidance of the spiritual master. He also emphasised on the supreme authority of the holy Prophet and the need to obey laws in both letter and spirit

Lecture 4: Why civilizations expand east-west axis [Journey through worl...

ashokan pillar

A Buddhist king

What happens when a powerful ruler adopts a new religion that contradicts the life into which he was born? What about when this change occurs during the height of his rule when things are pretty much going his way? How is that information conveyed over a large geographical region with thousands of inhabitants? 

King Ashoka, a convert to Buddhism, decided to solve these problems by erecting pillars that rose some 50’ into the sky. The pillars were raised throughout the Magadha region in the North of India that had emerged as the center of the first Indian empire, the Mauryan Dynasty (322-185 B.C.E).  Written on these pillars, intertwined in the message of Buddhist compassion, were the merits of King Ashoka.

The third emperor of the Mauryan dynasty, Ashoka (pronounced Ashoke), who ruled from c. 279 B.C.E. - 232 B.C.E., was the first leader to accept Buddhism and thus the first major patron of Buddhist art. Ashoka made a dramatic conversion to Buddhism after witnessing the carnage that resulted from his conquest of the village of Kalinga. He adopted the teachings of the Buddha known as the Four Noble Truths, referred to as the dharma (the law):

Life is suffering (suffering=rebirth)
the cause of suffering is desire
the cause of desire must be overcome
when desire is overcome, there is no more suffering (suffering=rebirth)

Individuals who come to fully understand the Four Noble Truths are able to achieve Enlightenment, ending samsara, the endless cycle of birth and rebirth. Ashoka also pledged to follow the Six Cardinal Perfections (the Paramitas), which were codes of conduct created after the Buddha’s death providing instructions for the Buddhist practitioners to follow a compassionate Buddhist practice. Ashoka did not require that everyone in his kingdom become Buddhist, and Buddhism did not become the state religion, but through Ashoka’s support, it spread widely and rapidly.

The pillars

Asokan pillar capital at Vaishali, Bihar, India,
c. 250 B.C.E. (photo: mself, CC BY-SA 2.5)One of Ashoka’s first artistic programs was to erect the pillars that are now scattered throughout what was the Mauryan empire. The pillars vary from 40 to 50 feet in height. They are cut from two different types of stone—one for the shaft and another for the capital. The shaft was almost always cut from a single piece of stone. Laborers cut and dragged the stone from quarries in Mathura and Chunar, located in the northern part of India within Ashoka’s empire. The pillars weigh about 50 tons each. Only 19 of the original pillars survive and many are in fragments. The first pillar was discovered in the 16th century. 

Lotus and lion

The physical appearance of the pillars underscores the Buddhist doctrine. Most of the pillars were topped by sculptures of animals. Each pillar is also topped by an inverted lotus flower, which is the most pervasive symbol of Buddhism (a lotus flower rises from the muddy water to bloom unblemished on the surface—thus the lotus became an analogy for the Buddhist practitioner as he or she, living with the challenges of everyday life and the endless cycle of birth and rebirth, was able to achieve Enlightenment, or the knowledge of how to be released from samsara, through following the Four Noble Truths). This flower, and the animal that surmount it, form the capital, the topmost part of a column. Most pillars are topped with a single lion or a bull in either seated or standing positions. The Buddha was born into the Shakya or lion clan. The lion, in many cultures, also indicates royalty or leadership. The animals are always in the round and carved from a single piece of stone.

Ashoka Pillar at Lumbini, Nepal the birthplace of the Buddha
(photo: Charlie Phillips, CC: BY 2.0)

The edicts 

Some pillars had edicts (proclamations) inscribed upon them.  The edicts were translated in the 1830s. Since the 17th century, 150 Ashokan edicts have been found carved into the face of rocks and cave walls as well as the pillars, all of which served to mark his kingdom, which stretched across northern India and south to below the central Deccan plateau and in areas now known as Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. The rocks and pillars were placed along trade routes and in border cities where the edicts would be read by the largest number of people possible. They were also erected at pilgrimage sites such as at Bodh Gaya, the place of Buddha’s Enlightenment, and Sarnath, the site of his First Sermon and Sanchi, where the Mahastupa, the Great Stupa of Sanchi, is located (a stupa is a burial mound for an esteemed person. When the Buddha died, he was cremated and his ashes were divided and buried in several stupas. These stupas became pilgrimage sites for Buddhist practitioners).

Some pillars were also inscribed with dedicatory inscriptions, which firmly date them and name Ashoka as the patron. The script was Brahmi, the language from which all Indic language developed. A few of the edicts found in the western part of India are written in a script that is closely related to Sanskrit and a pillar in Afghanistan is inscribed in both Aramaic and Greek—demonstrating Ashoka’s desire to reach the many cultures of his kingdom. Some of the inscriptions are secular in nature. Ashoka apologizes for the massacre in Kalinga and assures the people that he now only has their welfare in mind. Some boast of the good works that Ashoka has done, underscoring his desire to provide for his people.

The Hinayana Period

Ashokan Pillar on a relief at the Mahastupa at Sanchi, north gate (torana) post, 3rd c. B.C.E. (photo:Nandanupadhyay, CC: BY-SA 3.0)The pillars (and the stupas) were created in the Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle) period. Hinayana is the first stage of Buddhism, roughly dated from the sixth c. to the first century B.C.E., in which no images of the Buddha were made. The memory of the historical Buddha and his teachings was enough to sustain the practitioners. But several symbols became popular as stand-ins for the human likeness of the Buddha. The lotus, as noted above, is one. The lion, which is typically seen on the Ashokan pillars, is another. The wheel (cakra) is a symbol of both samsara, the endless circle of birth and rebirth, and the dharma, the Four Noble Truths. 

Why a pillar?

There are a few hypotheses about why Ashoka used the pillar as a means for communicating his Buddhist message. It is quite possible that Persian artists came to Ashoka’s empire in search of work, bringing with them the form of the pillar, which was common in Persian art. But is also likely that Ashoka chose the pillar because it was already an established Indian art form. In both Buddhism and Hinduism, the pillar symbolized the axis mundi (the axis on which the world spins).

The pillars and edicts represent the first physical evidence of the Buddhist faith. The inscriptions assert Ashoka’s Buddhism and support his desire to spread the dharma throughout his kingdom. The edicts say nothing about the philosophical aspects of Buddhism and scholars have suggested that this demonstrates that Ashoka had a very simple and naïve understanding of the dharma. But, as Ven S. Dhammika suggests, Ashoka’s goal was not to expound on the truths of Buddhism, but to inform the people of his reforms and encourage them to live a moral life. The edicts, through their strategic placement and couched in the Buddhist dharma, serve to underscore Ashoka’s administrative role and as a tolerant leader. 

Edict #6 is a good example:

Beloved of the Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation
I started to have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of the people, and so that not transgressing them they might grow in the Dhamma. Thinking: “How can the welfare and happiness of the people be secured?” I give my attention to my relatives, to those dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I act accordingly. I do the same for all groups. I have honored all religions with various honors. But I consider it best to meet with people personally.

Essay by Dr. Karen Shelby 

bitch is back

Housing and transportation costs are low and Cubans receive free education, health care, and food subsidies.^[14]Corruption is common, although allegedly lower than in most other countries in Latin America.^[15] In the book,Corruption in Cuba, Sergio Diaz-Briquets and Jorge F. Pérez-López Servando state that Cuba has institutionalized corruption and that state-run monopolies, cronyism, and lack of accountability have made Cuba one of the world's most corrupt states".^[16][17][18]

Despite the Spanish term bloqueo (blockade), there has been no physical, naval blockade of the country by the United States after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.^[7] The United States does not block Cuba's trade with third parties: other countries are not under the jurisdiction of U.S. domestic laws, such as the Cuban Democracy Act (although, in theory, foreign countries that trade with Cuba could be penalised by the U.S., which has been condemned as an "extraterritorial" measure that contravenes "the sovereign equality of States, non-intervention in their internal affairs and freedom of trade and navigation as paramount to the conduct of international affairs."^[8]). Cuba can, and does, conduct international trade with many third-party countries;^[9] Cuba has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995.^[10]

The logical outgrowth of literary Realism was the point of view known as Naturalism. This literary movement, like its predecessor, found expression almost exclusively within the novel. Naturalism also found its greatest number of practitioners in America shortly before and after the turn of the twentieth century. Naturalism sought to go further and be more explanatory than Realism by identifying the underlying causes for a person’s actions or beliefs. The thinking was that certain factors, such as heredity and social conditions, were unavoidable determinants in one’s life. A poor immigrant could not escape their life of poverty because their preconditions were the only formative aspects in his or her existence that mattered. Naturalism almost entirely dispensed with the notion of free will, or at least a free will capable of enacting real change in life’s circumstances. The theories of Charles Darwin are often identified as playing a role in the development of literary Naturalism; however, such a relationship does not stand up to investigative rigor. Darwin never applied his theories to human social behavior, and in doing so many authors seriously abused the actual science. There was in the late nineteenth century a fashion in sociology to apply evolutionary theory to human social woes. This line of thinking came to be knows as Social Darwinism, and today is recognized as the systematized, scientific racism that it is. More than a few atrocities in world history were perpetrated by those who misguidedly applied Darwinism to the social realm. Naturalism, for better or worse, is in some respects a form of Social Darwinism played out in fiction